World Research on Schizophrenia

Introduction

 Sato and colleagues (1992) have described the methamphetamine induced paranoid psychotic state, which is indistinguishable from that of some schizophrenic disorders. Utena and Ezoe (1951) reported that chronic schizophrenics demonstrated a significant reduction in glycolysis, with no change in oxygen uptake or carbon dioxide production. This would appear to suggest that the schizophrenic brain is burning some other fuel than glucose, although the Japanese authors did not come to that conclusion.

Japanese Research:Utena and Ezoe  

  Two subjects with methamphetamine psychosis also displayed reduced glycolysis. After this the Japanese decided to use amphetamine intoxication as an animal model of schizophrenia. In other words, rats become schizophrenic, according to this theory, then on amphetamine. Amazingly similar drugs have been used as therapy in the United States! And they have even been used on children!   Guinea pigs were used in the Japanese experiments. Utena et al (1959) and Utena (1961) reported a study of the brain metabolism of guinea pigs on amphetamines. They found that brain tissue had a reduced glucose uptake with normal tissue respiration. Again this appears to suggest that the brains were burning some other macronutrient other than glucose. The brain can burn amino acids for fuel. The behaviors of the intoxicated animals were abnormal according to Utena (1966).   Motor excitement has been seen in animals on amphetamines. This was reported by Randrup and Munkvad in 1967 and 1968.

Tatetsu (1964)   

  The brilliant Japanese neuropathologist Tatetsu has reported similar pathology in the brains of schizophrenics to that seen in the brains of humans and animals intoxicated with amphetamines. This would appear to suggest that an internal substance similar to amphetamine or methamphetamine may cause schizophrenia. These are both methylated amines, with amphetamine having one methylation and methamphetamine having two methyl groups.   All of this appears to throw cold water on two types of treatment. Ritalin is used for ADHD, but Ritalin is an amphetamine analog. Also the use of MAO inhibitors is thrown into question because these drugs would prolong the life of the toxic amine. Uchimura and Oyama (1934)   

  These Japanese scientists used pneumoencephalography to study the brain in schizophrenia. They found ventricular enlargement, mainly in the third and lateral ventricles. This enlargement progressed in the early stage after the onset of the illness. THis study appears to kill the popular but unsound neurodevelopmental theory for schizophrenia. This work was confirmed in 1982 by Taskahashi and colleagues using the CT technique. They found an enlarged ventricular system and atrophy of the frontal and temporal cotices. 

Japanese researchers have consistently reported positive findings in schizophrenia. These positive findings are similar to those positive findings reported in the United States. The close resemblance of amphetamine to dopamine is intriguing. It may be that a methylated metabolite of dopamine is the endogenous toxin that causes schizophrenia.      
British Research

 In 1980 Dr. Paul Averback was with the prestigious University of Cambridge in England. Dr. Averback studied an obscure area in the basal ganglia called the "nucleus ansae peduncularis". The NAP is a group of large ganglionic cells "in the vicinity of the substantia innominata" according to Averback (1981). Averback reported "lipid-pigmentary neuronal degeneration" in this area in schizophrenia. This appears to confirm earlier (1913) work by Alzheimer.

Averback  

  Averback used the neuroanatomy system of Mettler. Mettler divided the substantia innominata into 7 regions, including the NAP as one of these regions. Averback reported "remnants of degenerate cells that appear to have been extremely distended." He reported that his findings were not the same as those found in neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. The "bulbous distortion" of neurons reported by Averback could be caused by these cells overeating some macronutrients such as amino acids. Since the basal ganglia are very high in dopamine, the possibility exists of an error in dopamine metabolism.   Averback reported that his findings were not the same as the "granulovacuolar degeneration" found in Alzheimer's disease. He found "masses of lipid vacuoles". Autoflourescence was seen. This was due to a pigment material. The stored material appeared similar to lipofuscin. 

 Canada         

  A great deal of very controversial work has been done in Canada. Greiner & Nicolson (1965) reported increased pigmentation in schizophrenics who had never been given phenothiazines. They studied 30 chronic schizophrenics who died between 1947 and 1949 (before phenothiazines were used). These patients had increased melanin formation in the viscera (internal organs). They concluded that increased melanogenesis was part of schizophrenia. Greiner et al (1964) recommended a low copper diet.

  Also controversial was the work of Hoffer & Osmond. This work is extensively discussed on my website, which is CraigOlson.bizhosting.com.   The niacin treatment has the beneficial side effect of lowering cholesterol. Komrower et al  (1964) reported that mentally retarded children improved when treated with this vitamin.

Russia         

 A great deal of brilliant work was done in what was previously called the Soviet Union. Most of the work was done in what is now called Russia. Therefore I present the Russian flag with this work. Although I did not like the politics of the Soviet Union, and also they abused psychiatry to suppress dissent, I do have to admire the brilliance of their scientists. The worse abuse ever in psychiatry was in Nazi Germany where they killed the patients because they thought that the mental diseases were incurable. I feel that they are not incurable.

  Mischenko & Bonartsev reported a membranolytic substance in schizophrenia. They found a toxic factor in the serum which caused hemolysis in a chicken red cell assay. Electron microscopy was used. This work in the 70's confirmed previous work by Fedoroff of Canada. Fedoroff had demonstrated an unknown toxin using a tissue culture.   Other Russian workers reported a serum factor which altered the metabolism of cat mitochondria. The ATP was altered. Mischenko & Bonartsev found the leukocyte metabolism was abnormal, with accumulation of lactate.

Borg et al          

  This Swedish group reported muscle biopsy work in schizophrenia. Abnormalities were seen in the muscles of schizophrenics. "Moth-eaten" fibers were seen. Glycogen droplets and fat droplets were seen. This suggests a partial failure of glucose metabolism (as in diabetes). However, fat is burned in diabetes. In schizophrenia fat accumulates.   Perhaps amino acids are being burned instead of glucose. A flooding of the cells with amino acids would explain the fat. Some excess amino acids would be converted to fat. The Scandinavian group suggested an error in amino acid metabolism.

American Work         

  For a while Osmond worked in Canada with Hoffer. Then he moved to the US. Siegler & Osmond have favored the medical model. The medical model means that an illness needs to be treated. Freud often blamed the parents, but Siegler & Osmond do not take that view. My own opinion is that Siegler & Osmond are correct.  

  Of a different point of view was L. Ron Hubbard. Hubbard & his followers have severely attacked shock treament and psychiatric drugs. Hubbard created a hubub when he founded Scientology, which is much like a Christian Science of psychiatry. They even have a cross as a symbol. However, they do not have a valid alternative to psychiatry. They reject the medical model.

Conclusions  

  The toxic factor theory goes back to Jung of Switzerland. Jung, like Freud, visited Clark University in Worcester, Ma. Jung proposed a toxin that caused schizophrenia.             This was probably the only theory of Jung that was valid. Kraepelin of Germany had a similar view.          

  Kraepelin rejected Freud's views. Freud was from Austria, which became a hotbed of psychoanalysis.           
  It is well established that schizophrenia is organic. The treament of choice is controversial. This author favors a diet low in amino acids because they are flooding the cells. The medical model is correct. Siegler & Osmond favored orthomolecular psychiatry. Osmond died in 2004. Hubbard was largely barking up the wrong tree. Scientology is not science any more than Christian "Science". Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of Christian Science, rejected doctors. This was a mistake.